The White Carpathian (Bílé Karpaty) Mts. are important especially for their vast species-rich meadows with many rare and endangered species, often having here very large populations or remarkably isolated occurrences distant from the centres of their natural ranges. Čertoryje Nature Reserve and its buffer zone, which form the majority of the LTER site, is the largest area of this precious habitat in the White Carpathians. Meadows which were not fertilized (or even ploughed up) under socialist agriculture in the second half of the 20th century are the most valuable. These meadows are usually situated on steep slopes which were hardly accessible to the machinery and were thus often totally abandoned and gradually overgrew with expansive grasses and scrub. Their current biological diversity therefore needs resumption of the former extensive management (scrub elimination and subsequent regular mowing without fertilization). These resoration activities started here in the mid 1980s. A fine-scale monitoring of vegetation succession after management restoration at one of these plots is a component of the long-term research here since 1989. The opposite extreme of socialist agricultural management of species-rich meadows was their conversion to arable land. These fields have been gradually re-grassed since 1989. Restoration of the former species-richness is however very slow (or even impossible) and needs special restoration measures. Hence another objective of the local long-term research is the succession on re-grassed arable fields. Spatially detailed observations take place on the eastern slope of the Výzkum hill and are aimed to find out an optimalized economic method of restoring a species-rich meadow (four variants are tested). Except vegetation succession, also the development of several soil fauna coenoses (Testacea, Nematoda, Oribatida, Collembola, Enchytraeidae, Lumbricidae, Oniscidea, Diplopoda, Chilopoda, Opiliones, and Carabidae) has been studied here since 2000. Since 2009, also succession in a broader landscape context is studied, taking into account restored grasslands in a major part of the whole White Carpathian Mountains. More than one tenth of the localities from this landscape study takes place directly in the LTER site, representing about 100 hectares regrassed by a regional species-rich seed mix since 2000 and 30 hectares regrassed by a commercial clover-grass seed mix in the late nineties. The research is focused on both plants (mainly vascular plants, additionally also bryophytes) and animals (Auchenorrhyncha, Heteroptera, Lepidoptera: Hesperioidea, selected phytophagous Coleoptera).

The primary research site for the Konza Prairie LTER program is the Konza Prairie Biological Station (KPBS), a 3,487-ha native tallgrass prairie preserve and research station jointly owned by The Nature Conservancy and Kansas State University. The KPBS is located in the Flint Hills of northeastern Kansas (39°05’ N, 96°35’ W), a grassland region of steep-slopes overlain by shallow limestone soils unsuitable for cultivation. The climate is continental, with mean annual precipitation of 835 mm yr-1, but high variability. KPBS is topographically complex (320 to 444 m asl), and soil type and depth vary with topography. Soils are silty clay loams, formed from thick colluvial and alluvial deposits ≥2 m in lowlands, while hillside and upland soils are shallow. Soils overlay alternating layers of limestone and shale, contributing to complex subsurface hydrology. Vegetation is primarily (>90%) native tallgrass prairie dominated by perennial C4 grasses, but precipitation is sufficient to support woody vegetation, making periodic drought, fire and grazing critical for maintaining grassland. Numerous sub-dominant grasses, forbs and woody species contribute to high floristic diversity (>600 plant species). The entire Kings Creek watershed, a USGS Benchmark Stream, is located on Konza. Hardwood forests occur along major stream courses. Several agricultural fields and restored prairies are located on site. Overall, the site is representative of native tallgrass prairie, with selected areas representing other contemporary land use practices (e.g., agriculture, restored grasslands, cattle and bison grazing).

The Kedoshim-forest Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) is an experimental set up established in 2008 in a mature Pinus halepensis forest. This long-term research was designed to address silvicultural issues related to the management of mature, first generation, man-made, pine forest ecosystems in Israel and the design of their next generations as sustainable multiple-use forests. The Kedoshim LTER site is part of the Israeli LTER network - MAARAG. The Kedoshim LTER site provides a comprehensive well designed experimental infrastructure to study long-term effects of silvicultural manipulation (specifically overstory thinning) on vegetation dynamics, forest structure and ecosystem function. Four overstory thinning treatments were applied within 70×70 research plots: 1) clear cut, 2) heavy thinning – 100 tree ha-1 (65% reduction in stem basal area), 3) moderate thinning – 300 tree ha-1 (35% reduction in stem basal area) and, 4) control with no thinning – ca. 500 tree ha-1. Additionally, adjacent non-forested area was assigned as a reference. Climate and microclimate and various aspects of vegetation dynamics, forest function and biodiversity are monitored continuously since the application of thinning treatments.

The LTSER Zone Atelier Plaine & Val de Sèvre belongs to LTER-France network and is located in the Poitou-Charentes Region, Western France (46°11’N, 0°28’W, 43m average altitude). The main interests of this zone lie in its large size and the historical data related to monitoring of land use by the CNRS-CEBC over the past 26 years (1994 onwards). The site is bordered by the town of Niort to the north, and Chizé forest massif to the south. Approximately 28,000 inhabitants live in the area, in c. 40 villages. The study area size is 45,000 ha, of calcareous plains which are subjected to a warm-temperate oceanic climate. With a mean annual precipitation of 840 mm and regular summer dryness, mixed oak forests would be the potentially natural vegetation. Rain is scarce in summer. Woodlands are mostly reduced to small and scattered remnant patches (mean patch size = 1.87 ha) and hedgerows are widespread in some areas especially in the cattle breeding sectors. Woods are composed of medium-sized trees, maple, ash, cherry or oak (Acer, Fraxinus, Prunus cerasus or Quercus), with a strong presence of elm (Ulmus). Some of the main human derived landscape features of this area are a suburban zone in the North including many garden areas, a motorway on a North-South axis carrying heavy road traffic, and an electricity substation creating a concentration of high voltage power lines in some areas. The ZAPVS aims to elaborate an alternative agricultural system to the productivist model, for ensuring the sustainable management of natural resources.

As the largest contiguous pine forest in Switzerland, the Pfyn forest in Canton Valais (46° 18' N, 7° 36' E, 615 m ASL) offers the best conditions for such measurements. In light of this, a WSL research team installed a long-term experiment of 20 years duration in the Pfyn forest. The average temperature here is 9.2°C, the yearly accumulated precipitation is 657 mm (average 1961-1990). The pines in the middle of the forest are about 100 years old and 10.8 m high. The test area has 876 trees covering 1.2 ha divided into 8 plots of 1'000 m2 each (Image 4). Between the months of April and October four of these plots are irrigated by a sprinkler system providing an additional 700 mm of water, annually. In the other four plots, the trees grow under natural, hence relatively dry conditions.

The majority of the Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research (LUQ) program takes place in the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. This tropical setting has steep environmental gradients, a varied natural disturbance regime, and a history of human land use. Of the mountain area, 11,330 hectares are included in the Luquillo Experimental Forest (LEF), which is congruent with El Yunque National Forest, part of the U.S. National Forest system. The mountains rise to over 1075 m. Prevailing winds coming off the ocean from the east drop rain as they rise over the mountains; thus rainfall increases with elevation, ranging from about 3530 mm/year at low elevations to 4850 mm/year higher up. February through April are the drier months, but monthly rainfall is variable. Mean monthly temperatures at lowest elevations range from about 23.5ºC in January to 27ºC in September, and at the highest elevations from 17ºC to 20ºC (Climate and Hydrology). The geology of the Luquillo Mountains is mainly described as igneous rock formed in the Cretaceous, with some intrusive materials from the Tertiary. Soils are deep, weathered, and moderately rich in nutrients. Little humus accumulates, due to rapid decomposition, except in local areas at upper elevations, where decomposition seems to be inhibited by waterlogging. There are four main life zones, delineated on the basis of temperature and precipitation (Holdridge System), in the Luquillo Mountains: subtropical wet and subtropical rain forests are found at low and mid elevations, lower montane rain and lower montane wet forests at high elevations. There is also an area of subtropical moist forest at low elevations on the southwest slope. Natural disturbances in the Luquillo Mountains include hurricanes, landslides, treefalls, droughts, and floods. Human disturbances, mainly in the past, include road construction, charcoal production, clearing for pasture and crops, creation of coffee plantations, and logging. The forests are classified into four types: "tabonuco forest", "palo colorado forest", "palm forest", and "elfin woodland forest". Ascending the Luquillo Mountains through these forest types, shows a distinctive forest dynamic with the average tree height and diameter, number of tree species, and basal area (cross sectional area of tree stems) tend to decrease, while stem density increases. Epiphytes become more common with elevation. The animal community in the Luquillo Mountains exhibits several distinctive characteristics that affect the structure of its food web. The characteristics are a product of tropical location, disturbance regime, and spatial and temporal constraints related to island size, distance and history of isolation from continents. The only native mammal in the area are bats, all other mammals (cats, rats, and mongooses) are introduced. Birds include several species endemic to Puerto Rico, such as the Puerto Rican Tody, an understory insectivore, and the Puerto Rican Parrot, an endangered species. Streams in the Luquillo Mountains have steep channels with many boulders and series of pools and riffles. The dynamics of stream ecosystems are strongly influence by physical factors, such as the rapid change in elevation from headwaters to coastal plains, the intensity and frequency of rainfall events, and the high temporal variability of stream discharge.

Fagus sylvatica forest on limestone plateau

The ZA PYGAR covers the whole Garonne river basin up to the upper part of the Gironde estuary (La Reole station). Within this territory, research is structured around 4 main sites: the Pyrénées mountains, covering the upstream part of the Garonne river basin (PYRénées site), the farmland of the foothills of the Pyrénées (Vallées et Coteaux de Gascogne site), the Garonne river (Axe Fluvial Garonne site) and the basin of two tributaries of the Garonne river in the Massif Central moutains (Aveyron-Viaur site).

Sugadaira Montane Research Center, established in 1934, is located on the mountain region of 1,300 m alt. in Nagano Prefecture, central Honshu-Island, Japan. In the extensive campus of the Center (35 ha), a sere of vegetation succession is well preserved, and seral stages of the secondary succession for the last one hundred years are sequentially and chronologically arranged: a Miscanthus grass field (A) - young pine forest (about 45 year-old) (B) - mature pine forest (about 60 year-old) (C) - older deciduous broad-leaved forest (about 100 year-old) (D).

The area defined as ‘the Veluwe’ lies in the province of Gelderland, the Netherlands, West of the river IJssel and North of the river Rhine. The region hosts the largest connected nature area of the country: around 91.947 ha are part of the Natura 2000 area. The natural landscape consists of a mix of forests, heathlands, sand drifts, lakes, and moorlands. The Veluwe was settled a long time ago, and the area is now densely populated (van der Zouwen, 2006). Traces of burial mounds and agricultural fields are indicators of former human settlements. During prehistoric and medieval times, extraction of iron and timber took place on the Veluwe. After the start of the 19th century, large scale deforestation occurred, with several consequences for the nature and the landscape of the area. Human colonization increased rapidly in the 20th century. This resulted in increased infrastructure, intensified agriculture, and increased water extraction, with consequences for the groundwater levels and biodiversity (Jongmans et al., 2012; Schaminée and Jansen, 2009). As it stands, the present nature regions are surrounded by agriculture, settlements, or infrastructure. This means there is a lot of interaction between humans and nature. For example, the National Park De Hoge Veluwe and the Kröller-Müller museum and surrounding attractions get more than half a million visitors per year (ZKA Consultants & Planners, 2013). The unique circumstances of highly populated areas combined with nature provide great opportunities for research on the varied interactions between nature and humans to be carried out. A great array of different ecological and socio-economic research has already been carried out in the Veluwe, which makes it a good quality LTSER platform right from the start. One criteria for a LTSER platform is the definition of relevant themes or research questions (ILTER, 2014).